Coal

"Coal is the altered remains of prehistoric vegetation that originally accumulated in swamps and peat bogs"

"Coal formation began during the Carboniferous Period – known as the first coal age – which spanned 360 million to 290 million years ago."

• Taking and using coal from earth is using something that cannot be replaced for millions of years. The kind of non-renewable carbon-based fuel usage that last couple of centuries have seen and this century sees is sort of one-off in earth's history and near term future. No wonder Amitav Ghosh refers to this time period as The Great Deranged Age.
• Surface mining of coal for thousands of years
• But in earnest, only last couple of centuries.

"It became important in the Industrial Revolution of the 19th and 20th centuries, when it was primarily used to power steam engines, heat buildings and generate electricity."

Coal mining began in earnest when demand, technology, and transport converged—that moment arrives much later than coal’s first use.

Coal mining began “in earnest” in the late 17th century and truly accelerated in the 18th century, becoming foundational during the Industrial Revolution (c. 1760–1840).

• There are many kinds of coal.  (A succinct set explaining it)

The degree of change undergone by a coal as it matures from peat to anthracite – known as coalification – has an important bearing on its physical and chemical properties and is referred to as the ‘rank’ of the coal. Low rank coals, such as lignite and subbituminous coals are typically softer, friable materials with a dull, earthy appearance. They are characterised by high moisture levels and low carbon content, and therefore a low energy content. Higher rank coals are generally harder and stronger and often have a black, vitreous lustre. They contain more carbon, have lower moisture content, and produce more energy. Anthracite is at the top of the rank scale and has a correspondingly higher carbon and energy content and a lower level of moisture.

 

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Coal is a cornerstone of electricity generation in many countries as well as the single largest source of carbon dioxide emissions globally, placing it at the centre of international dialogues on energy.

• Two-thirds of coal used today is for power generation
• China is the world's largest coal consumer (by far - consumes more coal than the rest of the world combined)

China consumes 30% more coal than the rest of the world put together. It also produces more coal than all other countries combined, and it is the world’s largest importer. This dominance by a single country makes global coal markets very dependent on developments in China, notably those related to economic growth, government policies, energy markets, weather conditions and dynamics in the Chinese domestic coal sector.  

Coal-to-chemicals remains a major driver of coal demand in China due to the scale of its domestic chemical production. 

These technologies have historically been pursued to reduce reliance on oil and gas – mostly imported – and to utilise domestic coal resources, but they remain energy- and waterintensive and emit significant CO₂.  

Coal prices are lower and less volatile than oil or natural gas prices. The widening gap between coal and other energy commodities underscores the competitiveness of coal as an energy carrier.

Some charts from here.

In terms of trade:

Over 70% of global coal export revenues are concentrated in just three countries, which dominate the market in both volume and value: Australia, Indonesia and Russia. 

Largest reserves: